Jump to content

Three Kingdoms of Korea

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Three Kingdoms (Korea))
For the Three Kingdoms of China, see Three Kingdoms.
Not to be confused with Proto–Three Kingdoms period or Later Three Kingdoms.
Three Kingdoms of Korea
Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea—Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla—in the fifth century, at the height of Goguryeo's territorial expansion (Gaya is not included in the Three Kingdoms)
Korean name
Hunminjeongeum
삼국시대
Hanja
三國時代
Revised RomanizationSamguk-sidae
McCune–ReischauerSamguk-sidae
Other name
Hunminjeongeum
삼국시기
Hanja
三國時期
Revised RomanizationSamguk-sigi
McCune–ReischauerSamguk-sigi

The Three Kingdoms of Korea or Samhan (Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla) competed for hegemony over the Korean Peninsula during the ancient period of Korean history. During the Three Kingdoms period (Korean: 삼국시대),[a] many states and statelets consolidated until, after Buyeo was annexed in 494 and Gaya was annexed in 562, only three remained on the Korean Peninsula: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The "Korean Three Kingdoms" contributed to what would become Korea; and the Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla peoples became the Korean people.[1]

The three kingdoms occupied the entire peninsula and roughly half of Manchuria (modern-day Northeast China and small parts of the Russian Far East).[2] Goguryeo controlled the northern half of the peninsula, as well as Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria. Baekje and Silla occupied the southern half of the peninsula. The island kingdoms of Tamna and Usan were subordinated to Baekje and Silla, respectively.

All three kingdoms shared a similar culture and language.[citation needed] Baekje and Goguryeo shared founding myths which likely originated in Buyeo.[3] Buddhism, which arrived in Korea in the 3rd century AD from India via Tibet and China, became the state religion of all constituents of the three kingdoms, starting with Goguryeo in 372 AD.[4] The Three Kingdoms of Korea all had a warrior aristocracy in contrast to the literary elite of China.[5]

The period ended in the 7th century, after Silla allied with Tang China and unified the peninsula for the first time in history. After the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, the Tang dynasty established a short-lived military government to administer parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla was joined by Goguryeo and Baekje loyalists and fought the Tang for hegemony over the Korean Peninsula.[6] Silla was eventually divided into the Later Three Kingdoms and ultimately annexed by the new Goguryeo revivalist state of Goryeo.

Part of a series on the
History of Korea
thum
Prehistoric period
Palaeolithic 700,000 BC-8000 BC
Neolithic 8000 BC–1500 BC
* Jeulmun
Bronze Age 1500 BC–300 BC
* Mumun
* Liaoning dagger
Ancient period
Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC
* Dangun
* Gija
* Wiman
Jin 4th–2nd century BC
Yemaek
Proto–Three Kingdoms period
Three Kingdoms period
Goguryeo 37 BC–668 AD
Baekje 18 BC–660 AD
Silla 57 BC–935 AD
Gaya confederacy 42–562
Tamna (Tributary of Baekje) 498–660
Usan 512–930
Northern and Southern period
United Silla (Unified Silla) 668–892
Balhae 698–926
Little Goguryeo 699–820
Tamna (Tributary of Silla) 662–925
Later Three Kingdoms period
Later Baekje 892–936
Taebong (Later Goguryeo) 901–918
Unified Silla (Later Silla) 892–935
Later Sabeol 919–927
Dongdan Kingdom 926–936
Later Balhae 927–935
Jeongan 938–986
Dynastic period
Goryeo 918–1392
Tamna (Vassal of Goryeo) 938–1105
Heungyo 1029–1030
Joseon 1392–1897
Korean Empire 1897–1910
Colonial period
Japanese occupation 1910–1945
Provisional Government 1919–1948
Modern period
Military governments 1945–1948
North-South division 1945–present
* North 1948–present
* South 1948–present
By topic
Timeline
map Korea portal

Nomenclature

[edit]
See also: Names of Korea

Beginning in the 7th century, the name "Samhan" became synonymous with the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The "Han" in the names of the Korean Empire, Daehan Jeguk, and the Republic of Korea (South Korea), Daehan Minguk or Hanguk, are named in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula.[7][8]

According to the Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa, Silla implemented a national policy, "Samhan Unification" (삼한일통; 三韓一統; Samhan Iltong), to integrate Baekje and Goguryeo refugees. In 1982, a memorial stone dating to 686 was discovered in Cheongju with an inscription: "The Three Han were unified and the domain was expanded."[7] During the Later Silla period, the concepts of Samhan as the ancient confederacies and the Three Kingdoms of Korea were merged.[7] In a letter to an imperial tutor of the Tang dynasty, Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn equated Byeonhan to Baekje, Jinhan to Silla, and Mahan to Goguryeo.[8] By the Goryeo period, Samhan became a common name to refer to all of Korea.[7] In his Ten Mandates to his descendants, Wang Geon declared that he had unified the Three Han (Samhan), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea.[7][8] Samhan continued to be a common name for Korea during the Joseon period and was widely referenced in the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty.[7]

In China, the Three Kingdoms of Korea were collectively called Samhan since the beginning of the 7th century.[9] The use of the name Samhan to indicate the Three Kingdoms of Korea was widespread in the Tang dynasty.[10] Goguryeo was alternately called Mahan by the Tang dynasty, as evidenced by a Tang document that called Goguryeo generals "Mahan leaders" (마한추장; 馬韓酋長; Mahan Choojang) in 645.[9] In 651, Emperor Gaozong of Tang sent a message to the king of Baekje referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea as Samhan.[7] Epitaphs of the Tang dynasty, including those belonging to Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla refugees and migrants, called the Three Kingdoms of Korea "Samhan", especially Goguryeo.[10] For example, the epitaph of Go Hyeon (고현; 高玄), a Tang dynasty general of Goguryeo origin who died in 690, calls him a "Liaodong Samhan man" (요동 삼한인; 遼東 三韓人; Yodong Samhanin).[9]

The name "Three Kingdoms" was used in the titles of the Korean histories Samguk sagi (12th century) and Samguk yusa (13th century), and should not be confused with the Three Kingdoms of China.

Foundation

[edit]
7th century Tang dynasty painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla.

The Three Kingdoms were founded after the fall of Wiman Joseon and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. After the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in the northwestern Korean Peninsula[11][12][13][14][15] and present Liaoning.[16] Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.

The nascent precursors of Baekje and Silla expanded within the web of statelets during the Proto-Three Kingdoms period, and Goguryeo conquered neighboring state like Buyeo in Manchuria and chiefdoms in Okjeo, Dongye which occupied the northeastern Korean Peninsula. The three polities made the transition from walled-town state to full-fledged state-level societies between 1st – 3rd century AD.

The primary sources for this period include Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa in Korea, and the "Eastern Barbarians" section (東夷傳) from the Book of Wei (魏書) of the Records of the Three Kingdoms in China.[citation needed]

All three kingdoms shared a similar culture and language. The Book of Sui (Volume 81) recorded: "The customs, laws and clothes of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla are generally identical."[17] Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic, but they were increasingly influenced by Chinese culture, particularly Confucianism and Taoism. In the 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula and spread rapidly, briefly becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms.

According to Lisa Kay Bailey, the material culture of the Three Kingdoms can be clearly distinguished as they displayed cultural influence from different regions. Goguryeo's culture showed stronger influence from northern Chinese art, Baekche showed stronger influence from southern Chinese art, and Silla, which was more distant from China, showed greater influence from Eurasian steppe nomad cultures and greater preservation of native traditions.[18] During this period, the Three Kingdoms had yet to unify their separate identities. Each kingdom produced their own individual histories; only in the Goryeo dynasty period was the collective history of the Korean Peninsula written together.[19]

"The decline of Chinese power in the fourth century unleashed a wave of refugees that proved pivotal in speeding up the process of state-building in Korea," starting the Three Kingdoms era.[20]

Kingdoms

[edit]
Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla
The Map of the Three Kingdoms of Korea

Goguryeo

[edit]
See also: Military history of Goguryeo
Goguryeo tomb mural.

Goguryeo emerged on the north and south banks of the Yalu (Amrok) River, in the wake of Gojoseon's fall. The first mention of Goguryeo in Chinese records dates from 75 BC in reference to a commandery established by the Chinese Han dynasty, although even earlier mentions of "Guri" (구리) may be of the same state. Evidence indicates Goguryeo was the most advanced, and likely the first established, of the three kingdoms.

Goguryeo, eventually the largest of the three kingdoms, had several capitals in alternation: two capitals in the upper Yalu area, and later Nangrang (Lelang in Chinese) which is now part of Pyongyang. At the beginning, the state was located on the border with China; it gradually expanded into Manchuria and destroyed the Chinese Lelang commandery in 313. The cultural influence of the Chinese continued as Buddhism was adopted as the official religion in 372.

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state;[21][22] it was a powerful empire and one of the great powers in East Asia.[23][24][25][26] The state was at its zenith in the 5th century, during the rule of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu, and particularly during their campaign in Manchuria. For the next century or so, Goguryeo was the dominant nation in Manchuria and the northern Korean peninsula.[27] Goguryeo eventually occupied the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and today's Seoul area. Gwanggaeto achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.[28][29]

Goguryeo also controlled Tungusic tribes in Manchuria. After the establishment of the Sui dynasty and later the Tang dynasty in China, the kingdom continued to take aggressive actions against China, Silla, and Baekje attacks until it was conquered by allied Silla–Tang forces in 668. Most of its territory was absorbed by the Tang dynasty of China, and the territory of Baekje was absorbed by Silla.

Baekje

[edit]
Gilt-bronze Incense Burner of Baekje

Baekje was founded as a member of the Mahan confederacy. Two sons of the founder of Goguryeo are recorded to have fled a succession conflict, to establish Baekje around the present Seoul area.[30][31][32] Baekje absorbed or conquered other Mahan chiefdoms and, at its peak in the 4th century, controlled most of the western Korean Peninsula. Buddhism was introduced to Baekje in 384 from Goguryeo, which Baekje welcomed.[27]

Baekje was a great maritime power;[33] its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan.[34][35] Baekje played a fundamental role in transmitting cultural and material developments to ancient Japan, including Chinese written characters, Chinese and Korean literature, technologies such as ferrous metallurgy and ceramics, architectural styles, sericulture and Buddhism.[26][27][36][37]

Baekje exerted its political influence on Tamna, a kingdom that ruled Jeju Island. Baekje maintained a close relationship with and extracted tribute from Tamna. Baekje's religious and artistic culture influenced Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo,[38] but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto and declined.[39]

In the late 5th century, under attack from Goguryeo, the capital of Baekje was moved south to Ungjin (present-day Gongju) and later further south to Sabi (present-day Buyeo). Baekje was conquered by Silla-Tang alliance in 660, submitting the Unified Silla.

Silla

[edit]
Bangasayusang, 7th century

According to Korean records, in 57 BC, Seorabeol (or Saro, later Silla) in the southeast of the peninsula unified and expanded the confederation of city-states known as Jinhan. Although Samguk sagi records that Silla was the earliest-founded of the three kingdoms, other written and archaeological records indicate that Silla was likely the last of the three to establish a centralized government. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.[40][41]

Renamed from Saro to Silla in 503, the kingdom annexed the Gaya confederacy (which in turn had absorbed Byeonhan earlier) in the first half of the 6th century. Goguryeo and Baekje responded by forming an alliance. To cope with invasions from Goguryeo and Baekje, Silla deepened its relations with the Tang dynasty, with her newly gained access to the Yellow Sea making direct contact with the Tang possible. After the conquest of Goguryeo and Baekje with her Tang allies, the Silla kingdom drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula and occupied the lands south of Pyongyang.

The capital of Silla was Seorabeol (now Gyeongju; "Seorabeol", "서라벌", is hypothesized to have been the ancient Korean term for "capital"). Buddhism became the official religion in 528. The remaining material culture from the kingdom of Silla including unique gold metalwork shows influence from the northern nomadic steppes, differentiating it from the cultures of Goguryeo and Baekje where Chinese influence was more pronounced.

Other states

[edit]

Other smaller states or regions existed in Korea before and during this period:

  • The Gaya confederacy was a confederacy of small kingdoms in the Nakdong River valley of southern Korea since AD 42, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan period. Archaeologists interpret mounded burial cemeteries of the late 3rd and early 4th centuries such as Daeseong-dong in Gimhae and Bokcheon-dong in Busan as the royal burial grounds of Gaya polities.[42] Gaya polities had economies that were based on agriculture, fishing, casting, and long-distance trade. Gaya polities exported abundant quantities of iron ore, iron armor, and other weaponry to Baekje and the Kingdom of Wa. Constantly engaged in war with the three kingdoms surrounding it, Gaya was not developed to form a unified state and was ultimately absorbed into Silla in 562.
  • Dongye, Okjeo, and Buyeo were all conquered by Goguryeo
  • Usan (Ulleung-do) tributary of Silla
  • Tamna (Jeju Province) tributary of Baekje
A Gaya soldier.

Religion

[edit]

Centuries after Buddhism originated in India, the Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in 1st century AD from Tibet, then to Korean Peninsula in the 3rd century from where it transmitted to Japan. In Korea, it was adopted by the state religion by three constituent polities, first by the Goguryeo ruling tribe of Geumgwan Gaya in 372 AD, by the Silla in 528 AD, and by the Baekje in 552 AD.[4]

Decline

[edit]

Allied with China under the Tang dynasty, Silla conquered Goguryeo in 668, after having already conquered Gaya in 562 and Baekje in 660, thus ushering in the North–South states period with Later Silla to the south and Balhae to the north, when Dae Jo-young, a former Goguryeo military officer, revolted against Tang Chinese rule and began reconquering former Goguryeo territories.

Archaeological evidence

[edit]
An unusual drinking vessel excavated from a Gaya mounded burial.

Archaeologists use theoretical guidelines derived from anthropology, ethnology, analogy, and ethnohistory to the concept of what defines a state-level society. This is different from the concept of state (guk or Sino ko: 國, walled-town state, etc.) in the discipline of Korean history.

In anthropological archaeology the presence of urban centres (especially capitals), monumental architecture, craft specialization and standardization of production, ostentatious burials, writing or recording systems, bureaucracy, demonstrated political control of geographical areas that are usually larger in area than a single river valley, etc. make up some of these correlates that define states.[43]

Among the archaeology sites dating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, hundreds of cemeteries with thousands of burials have been excavated. The vast majority of archaeological evidence of the Three Kingdoms period of Korea consists of burials, but since the 1990s there has been a great increase in the archaeological excavations of ancient industrial production sites, roads, palace grounds and elite precincts, ceremonial sites, commoner households, and fortresses due to the boom in salvage archaeology in South Korea.

Rhee and Choi hypothesize that a mix of internal developments and external factors lead to the emergence of state-level societies in Korea.[43] A number of archaeologists including Kang demonstrate the role of frequent warfare in the development of peninsular states.[43][44][45]

Foundation (c. 1 – 300/400 AD)

[edit]
Further information: Igeum-dong and Songguk-ri
Historic example of a climbing kiln similar to those that were excavated from Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ri as early as the late Three Kingdoms period, c. 600.

Some individual correlates of complex societies are found in the chiefdoms of Korea that date back to c. 700 BC.[43][46] The best evidence from the archaeological record indicates that states formed between 300 BC and 300/400 AD.[44][45][47][48][49][50] However, archaeologists are not prepared to suggest that this means there were states in the BC era. The correlates of state-level societies did not develop as a package but rather in spurts and starts and at various points in time. It was some time between 100 and 400 AD that individual correlates of state societies had developed to a sufficient number and scale that state-level societies can be confidently identified using archaeological data.

Burials

[edit]

Lee Sung-Joo analyzed variability in many of the elite cemeteries of the territories of Silla and Gaya polities and found that as late as the 2nd century there was intra-cemetery variation in the distribution of prestige grave goods, but there was an absence of hierarchical differences on a regional scale between cemeteries. Near the end of the 2nd century AD, interior space in elite burials increased in size, and wooden chamber burial construction techniques were increasingly used by elites.

In the 3rd century, a pattern developed in which single elite cemeteries that were the highest in status compared to all the other cemeteries were built. Such cemeteries were established at high elevations along ridgelines and on hilltops. Furthermore, the uppermost elite were buried in large-scale tombs established at the highest point of a given cemetery.[49] Cemeteries with 'uppermost elite' mounded burials such as Okseong-ri, Yangdong-ri, Daeseong-dong, and Bokcheon-dong display this pattern.

Roof tiles excavated from Goguryeo archaeological sites in the Han River valley, from National Museum of Korea.

Factory-scale production of pottery and roof-tiles

[edit]

Lee Sung-Joo proposed that, in addition to the development of regional political hierarchies as seen through analysis of burials, variation in types of pottery production gradually disappeared and full-time specialization was the only recognizable kind of pottery production from the end of the 4th century A.D. At the same time the production centers for pottery became highly centralized and vessels became standardized.[49]

Centralisation and elite control of production is demonstrated by the results of the archaeological excavations at Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ni in Gyeongju. These sites are part of what was an interconnected and sprawling ancient industrial complex on the northeast outskirts of the Silla capital. Songok-dong and Mulcheon-ri are examples of the large-scale of specialized factory-style productions in the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla periods. The site was excavated in the late 1990s, and archaeologists found the remains of many production features such as pottery kilns, roof-tile kilns, charcoal kilns, as well as the remains of buildings and workshops associated with production.

Capital cities, elite precincts, and monumental architecture

[edit]

Since the establishment of Goguryeo, its early history is well attested archaeologically: the first and second capital cities, Jolbon and Gungnae city, are located in and around today's Ji'an, Jilin. In 2004, the site was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Since 1976, continuing archaeological excavations concentrated in the southeastern part of modern Gyeongju have revealed parts of the so-called Silla Wanggyeong (Silla royal capital). A number of excavations over the years have revealed temples such as Hwangnyongsa, Bunhwangsa, Heungryunsa, and 30 other sites. Signs of Baekje's capitals have also been excavated at the Mongchon Fortress and the Pungnap Fortress in Seoul.

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Preceded by the Proto-Three Kingdoms period, the Three Kingdoms period is traditionally dated from 57 BC to 668 AD.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Benjamin 2015 The Cambridge World History: Volume 4 (p. 427, p. 430)
  2. ^ Kotkin, Stephen; Wolff, David (2015-03-04). Rediscovering Russia in Asia: Siberia and the Russian Far East: Siberia and the Russian Far East. Routledge. ISBN 9781317461296. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
  3. ^ The National Folk Museum of Korea (South Korea) (2014). Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. III. 길잡이미디어. p. 41. ISBN 9788928900848. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  4. ^ a b Lee Injae, Owen Miller, Park Jinhoon, Yi Hyun-Hae, 2014, Korean History in Maps, Cambridge University Press, pp. 44–49, 52–60.
  5. ^ Holcombe, Charles (2017); A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century; Cambridge University Press; p. 87
  6. ^ Wang 2013 Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War (p. 95)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g 이기환 (30 August 2017). [이기환의 흔적의 역사]국호논쟁의 전말…대한민국이냐 고려공화국이냐. Kyunghyang Shinmun (in Korean). Kyunghyang Shinmun. Archived from the original on 12 August 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  8. ^ a b c 이덕일. [이덕일 사랑] 대~한민국. 조선닷컴 (in Korean). The Chosun Ilbo. Archived from the original on 18 February 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  9. ^ a b c 고현묘지명(高玄墓誌銘). 한국금석문 종합영상정보시스템. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
  10. ^ a b Deok-young, Kwon (2014). "An inquiry into the name of Three Kingdom(三國) inscribed on the epitaph of T'ang(唐) period". The Journal of Korean Ancient History (in Korean). 75: 105–137. ISSN 1226-6213. Archived from the original on 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
  11. ^ Pai, Hyung Il (2000), Constructing "Korean" Origins: A Critical Review of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in Korean State Formation Theories, Harvard University Asia Center, pp. 127–129, ISBN 9780674002449
  12. ^ United States Congress (2016). North Korea: A Country Study. Nova Science Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 978-1590334430.
  13. ^ Connor, Edgar V. (2003). Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Science Publishers. p. 112. ISBN 978-1590334430.
  14. ^ Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0253000248.
  15. ^ Lee, Peter H. (1993). Sourcebook of Korean Civilization. Columbia University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0231079129.
  16. ^ Hong, Wontack (2005). "The Puyeo-Koguryeo Ye-maek the Sushen-Yilou Tungus, and the Xianbei Yan" (PDF). East Asian History: A Korean Perspective. 1 (12): 1–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-14. Retrieved 2010-10-05.
  17. ^ 한국사데이터베이스 비교보기 > 風俗·刑政·衣服은 대략 高[句]麗·百濟와 같다. Db.history.go.kr. Archived from the original on 2023-06-07. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
  18. ^ Susan Pares, Jim Hoare (2008). Korea: The Past and the Present (2 vols): Selected Papers From the British Association for Korean Studies Baks Papers Series, 1991–2005. Global Oriental. pp. 363–381. ISBN 9789004217829.
  19. ^ Park, J. P.; Rhi, Juhyung; Jungmann, Burglind; Arnold, Dana (2020). A Companion to Korean Art. John Wiley & Sons. p. 15. ISBN 9781118927014.
  20. ^ Kordas, Ann; Lynch, Ryan J.; Nelson, Brooke; Tatlock, Julie (2023-12-13). "5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia". OpenStax. Archived from the original on 2024-04-14. Retrieved 2024-04-22.
  21. ^ Yi, Ki-baek (1984). A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. pp. 23–24. ISBN 9780674615762. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  22. ^ Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. p. 104. ISBN 9781477265161. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  23. ^ Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 443. ISBN 9780199936762. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
  24. ^ Gardner, Hall (2007-11-27). Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 158–159. ISBN 9780230608733. Archived from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
  25. ^ Laet, Sigfried J. de (1994). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. UNESCO. p. 1133. ISBN 9789231028137. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  26. ^ a b Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012-11-20). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. pp. 6–7. ISBN 9781477265178. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  27. ^ a b c Korea's Three Kingdoms Archived 2011-05-16 at the Wayback Machine. Ancientworlds.net (2005-06-19). Retrieved on 2015-11-15.
  28. ^ Kim, Jinwung (2012-11-05). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0253000781. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  29. ^ "Kings and Queens of Korea". KBS World Radio. Korea Communications Commission. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
  30. ^ Pratt, Chairman Department of East Asian Studies Keith; Pratt, Keith; Rutt, Richard (2013-12-16). Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Routledge. p. 135. ISBN 9781136793936. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  31. ^ Yu, Chai-Shin (2012). The New History of Korean Civilization. iUniverse. p. 27. ISBN 9781462055593. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  32. ^ Kim, Jinwung (2012-11-05). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0253000781. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
  33. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton Mifflin. p. 123. ISBN 9780618133840. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  34. ^ Kitagawa, Joseph (2013-09-05). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Routledge. p. 348. ISBN 9781136875908. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  35. ^ Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. p. 104. ISBN 978-1111808150. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  36. ^ Introduction Buddhism of Baekje into Japan. baekje.chungnam.net
  37. ^ Farris, William Wayne, Japan to 1600: A Social and Economic History. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009, pp 68–87, 97–99, 101–105, 109–110, 116, 120–122.
  38. ^ A Brief History of Korea. Ewha Womans University Press. 2005-01-01. pp. 29–30. ISBN 9788973006199. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  39. ^ Yu, Chai-Shin (2012). The New History of Korean Civilization. iUniverse. p. 27. ISBN 9781462055593. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  40. ^ Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0253000248. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  41. ^ Wells, Kenneth M. (2015-07-03). Korea: Outline of a Civilisation. BRILL. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9789004300057. Retrieved 12 September 2016.
  42. ^ Barnes 2001:188–198.
  43. ^ a b c d Rhee, S.N. & Choi, M.L. (1992). "Emergence of complex society in Korea". Journal of World Prehistory. 6: 51–95. doi:10.1007/BF00997585. S2CID 145722584.
  44. ^ a b Kang, Bong-won. (1995). The role of warfare in the formation of state in Korea: Historical and archaeological approaches. PhD dissertation. University of Oregon, Eugene. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms.
  45. ^ a b Kang, Bong-won (2000). "A test of increasing warfare in the Samguk sagi against the archaeological remains in Yongnam, South Korea". Journal of East Asian Archaeology. 2 (3): 139–197. doi:10.1163/156852300760222100.
  46. ^ Bale, Martin T. & Ko, Min-jung (2006). "Craft Production and Social Change in Mumun Pottery Period Korea". Asian Perspectives. 45 (2): 159–187. doi:10.1353/asi.2006.0019. hdl:10125/17250. S2CID 55944795.
  47. ^ Barnes, Gina L. (2001). State formation in Korea: Historical and archaeological perspectives. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1323-9
  48. ^ Barnes, Gina L. (2004). "The emergence and expansion of Silla from an archaeological perspective". Korean Studies. 28: 14–48. doi:10.1353/ks.2005.0018. JSTOR 23720181. S2CID 162119593.
  49. ^ a b c Lee, Sung-joo. (1998). Silla–Gaya Sahwoe-eui Giwon-gwa Seongjang [The Rise and Growth of Society in Silla and Gaya]. Seoul: Hakyeon Munhwasa.
  50. ^ Pai, Hyung Il. (1989). "Lelang and the "interaction sphere": An alternative approach to Korean state formation". Archaeological Review from Cambridge. 8 (1): 64–75.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea&oldid=1263010400"