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Ecofeminism

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French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne coined the term in a 1974 book

Ecofeminism integrates feminism and political ecology. Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the concept of gender to analyse relationships between humans and the natural world.[1] The term was coined by the French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974).[2][3] Ecofeminist theory introduces a feminist perspective to Green politics and calls for an egalitarian, collaborative society in which there is no one dominant group.[4] Today, there are several branches of ecofeminism, with varying approaches and analyses, including liberal ecofeminism, spiritual/cultural ecofeminism, and social/socialist ecofeminism (or materialist ecofeminism).[4] Interpretations of ecofeminism and how it might be applied to social thought include ecofeminist art, social justice and political philosophy, religion, economics, contemporary feminism, and literature.

Ecofeminist analyses address the political effects of culturally constructed parallels between the oppression of nature and the oppression of women. These parallels include, but are not limited to, seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and women as the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature. Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected.[5]

Worldwide activism

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Like materialist ecofeminists Mies and Salleh, each of them professors of sociology, Susan Mann associates the beginning of ecofeminism not with feminists but with women of many historically different backgrounds who have perceived connections between gender, race, class, and environmental issues. The ideal of intersectionality is upheld through the notion that in activist and theory circles marginalized groups must be included in the discussion. However, in early North American environmentalism, the issues of race and class were sometimes separated.[6]

Women have long worked to protect wildlife, food, air and water.[7] These efforts coincided with new developments in environmental theory from writers such as Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, John Muir, and Rachel Carson.[8][9] Parallel examples from women environmental ethicists were the books Silent Spring by Rachel Carson and Refuge by Terry Tempest Williams.

Ecofeminist Karen Warren lists Aldo Leopold's essay "Land Ethic" (1949) as fundamental to her own ecofeminist philosophy, as Leopold was the first to pen an ethic for the land which understands all non-human parts of that community (animals, plants, land, air, water) as equal to and in a relationship with humans. That inclusive understanding of the environment helped launch the modern preservation movement showing how environmental issues can be viewed through a framework of caring.[10]

In India, in the state of Uttarakhand in 1973, women took part in the Chipko movement to protect forests from deforestation. Many men during this time were moving to cities in search of work, and women that stayed in the rural parts of India were reliant on the forests for subsistence.[11] As documented by Vandana Shiva, Non-violent protest tactics were used to occupy trees so that loggers could not cut them down.[10]

Wangari Maathai

In Kenya in 1977, the Green Belt Movement was initiated by environmental and political activist Professor Wangari Maathai. It is a rural tree planting program led by women, which Maathai designed to help prevent desertification in the area. The program created a 'green belt' of at least 1,000 trees around villages, and gave participants the ability to take charge in their communities. In later years, the Green Belt Movement was an advocate for informing and empowering citizens through seminars for civic and environmental education, as well as holding national leaders accountable for their actions and instilling agency in citizens.[12] The work of the Green Belt Movement continues today.

In 1978 in New York, mother and environmentalist Lois Gibbs led her community in protest after discovering that their entire neighborhood, Love Canal, was built on top of a toxic dump site. The toxins in the ground were causing illness among children and reproductive issues among women, as well as birth defects in babies born to pregnant women exposed to the toxins. The Love Canal movement eventually led to the evacuation and relocation of nearly 800 families by the federal government.[13]

In 1980 and 1981, women like ecofeminist Ynestra King organized a peaceful protest at the Pentagon. Women stood, hand in hand, demanding equal rights (including social, economic, and reproductive rights) as well as an end to militaristic actions taken by the government and exploitation of the community (people and the environment). This movement is known as the Women's Pentagon Actions.[14]

In 1985, the Akwesasne Mother's Milk Project was launched by Katsi Cook. This study was funded by the government, and investigated how the higher level of contaminants in water near the Mohawk reservation impacted babies. It revealed that through breast milk, Mohawk children were being exposed to 200% more toxins than children not on the reservation. Toxins contaminate water all over the world, but due to environmental racism, certain marginalized groups are exposed to a much higher amount.[15]

The Greening of Harlem Coalition is another example of an ecofeminist movement. In 1989, Bernadette Cozart founded the coalition, which is responsible for many urban gardens around Harlem. Cozart's goal is to turn vacant lots into community gardens.[16] This is economically beneficial, and also provides a way for very urban communities to be in touch with nature and each other. The majority of people interested in this project (as noted in 1990) were women. Through these gardens, they were able to participate in and become leaders of their communities. Urban greening exists in other places as well. Beginning in 1994, a group of African-American women in Detroit have developed city gardens, and call themselves the Gardening Angels. Similar garden movements have occurred globally.[17]

The development of vegetarian ecofeminism can be traced to the mid-80s and 90s, where it first appeared in writing. However, the roots of a vegetarian ecofeminist view can be traced back further by looking at sympathy for non-humans and counterculture movements of the 1960s and 1970s.[18] At the culmination of the decade, ecofeminism had spread to both USA coasts and articulated an intersectional analysis of women and the environment. Eventually, challenging ideas of environmental classism and racism, resisting toxic dumping and other threats to the impoverished.[19]

In terms of international political developments, Ariel Salleh's book Ecofeminism as Politics (1997/2017) contains a detailed account of women's ecofeminist actions from Japan and the Pacific to Scandinavia.

Early texts

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Though the scope of ecofeminist analysis is dynamic and diverse ecofeminist perspectives have emerged from women activists and thinkers all over the world, academic studies of ecofeminism have been dominated by North American universities. Thus,Charlene Spretnak described ecofeminist work developing: 1) through the study of political theory as well as history; 2) through belief and study of nature-based religions; and 3) through environmentalism.[20]. In a 1993 essay entitled "Ecofeminism: Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health", authors Greta Gaard and Lori Gruen defined what they call the "ecofeminist framework". The essay provides a wealth of data and statistics in addition to outlining the theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique. The framework was intended to establish ways of viewing and understanding the current global crisis so as to better understand how we arrived at this point and what may be done to ameliorate it.

Building on the work of Rosemary Ruether and Carolyn Merchant, Gaard and Gruen argued that there are four forces behind this political framework:

  1. The rise of patriarchal religions and their establishment of gender hierarchies along with their denial of immanent divinity.
  2. The mechanistic materialist model of the universe that resulted from the scientific revolution and the subsequent reduction of all things into mere resources to be optimized, dead inert matter to be used.
  3. Traditional cultural dualisms based on masculinity v femininity, self v other, humanity v nature, and the inherent power and domination ethic these entail.
  4. Capitalism and its intrinsic need for the instrumental exploitation of animals, earth and people for the sole purpose of creating wealth.

These four factors have brought Western cultures to what ecofeminists see as a "separation between nature and culture" that is the root source of our planetary ills.[21]

Some ecofeminist approaches developed out of anarcha-feminist concerns to abolish all forms of domination, including the oppressive character of humanity's relationship to the natural world.[22] According to d'Eaubonne's book Le Féminisme ou la Mort, ecofeminism relates the oppression of all marginalized groups (women, people of color, children, the poor) to the oppression and domination of nature (animals, land, water, air, etc.). She argued that domination, exploitation, and colonization under Western patriarchal society has directly caused irreversible environmental damage. An activist and organizer, d'Eaubonne worked for the eradication of all social injustice, not just injustice against women and the environment.[10]

Influential early texts included: Women and Nature (Susan Griffin 1978), The Death of Nature (Carolyn Merchant 1980) and Gyn/Ecology (Mary Daly 1978), which helped propel the association between domination by men of women and the domination of culture over nature. Meanwhile feminist activism of the 1980s included grass-roots movements such as the National Toxics Campaign, Mothers of East Los Angeles (MELA), and Native Americans for a Clean Environment (NACE) led by women devoted to issues of human health and environmental justice.[23] Writing from this circle discussed ecofeminism drawing from Green Party politics, peace movements, and direct action movements.[14]. A key figure at this time was Petra Kelly, a founder of the German Green Party.

Gendering nature

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Petra Kelly

A reoccurring claim within ecofeminist literature is that masculinist structures justify their dominance through binary oppositions, these include but are not limited to: heaven/earth, mind/body, male/female, human/animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature, white/non-white, and abled/disabled. Oppression is reinforced by applying these binaries in social judgements of value/non-value. [24]. Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism is built on paternalist and masculinist values, such that the effects of capitalism can not benefit women.[25].

Ecofeminist scholars emphasized that it is not because women are female or "feminine" that they are sensitive to nature, but because they experience oppression by the same masculinist forces. This marginalization is evident in the standard gendered language used to describe nature, such as "Mother Earth" or "Mother Nature", and the animalized language used to describe women in derogatory terms.[26] By contrast, other ecofeminists prefer to emphasise the value of women's skills learned from the traditional social role as 'caregiver'.[27]

The Indian ecofeminist and activist Vandana Shiva wrote that women farmers have a special connection to the environment through daily experience and that this has been underestimated. According to Shiva's book Staying Alive (1989), women in subsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the reductionist capitalist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth (23)".[28] Shiva attributes this failure to the global domination of Western perceptions of development and progress. According to Shiva, patriarchy has left women, nature, and many other groups outside of the economy, labelling them "unproductive".[29] Similarly,Ariel Salleh deepens this materialist ecofeminist approach in a critical dialogue with green politics and ecosocialism - see Ecofeminism as Politics (1997/2017).

Conceptual approaches

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Materialist ecofeminism

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In the book Ecofeminism (1993) authors Vandana Shiva together with Maria Mies interrogate modern science and its acceptance as a universal and value-free system. They view the dominant stream of science not as objective but rather as a projection of Western patriarchal instrumentalism.[30] The determination of what is considered scientific knowledge and its usage has been largely restricted to men. Examples include the medicalization of childbirth and the industrialization of plant reproduction.

The key activist-scholars developing a materialist ecofeminism are Maria Mies and Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen in Germany; Vandana Shiva in India; Ariel Salleh in Australia; Mary Mellor in the UK; and Ana Isla in Peru. Materialist ecofeminism is not widely known in North America aside from the journal collective at Capitalism Nature Socialism. A materialist analysis studies economic institutions such as labor, power, and property as a critical mechanism for control over women and nature. The contrast is between production, which is valued, versus reproduction of living relations, which is not.[31] This ecofeminism is referred to as "social feminism", "socialist ecofeminism", or "Marxist ecofeminism". According to Carolyn Merchant, "Social ecofeminism advocates the liberation of women through overturning economic and social hierarchies that turn all aspects of life into a market society that today even invades the womb".[4] Ecofeminism in this sense seeks to eliminate social hierarchies which favor the production of commodities for profit over biological and social reproduction traditionally seen as the sphere of women's work.

Spiritual and cultural ecofeminism

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Spiritual ecofeminism is an approach popular among North American authors such as Starhawk, Riane Eisler, and Carol Adams. Starhawk calls for an earth-based spirituality, which recognizes that the Earth is alive, and that we are all interconnected.[32] Spiritual ecofeminism is not linked to any specific religion, but is centered around values of caring, compassion, and non-violence.[33] Often, ecofeminists refer to ancient traditions, such as the worship of Gaia, the Goddess of nature and spirituality (also known as Mother Earth).[33] Wicca and Paganism are particularly influential in spiritual ecofeminism. Wicca covens demonstrate a deep respect for nature, a feminine outlook, and an aim to establish strong community values.[34]

In her book Radical Ecology, Carolyn Merchant refers to spiritual ecofeminism as "cultural ecofeminism". According to Merchant, cultural ecofeminism, "celebrates the relationship between women and nature through the revival of ancient rituals centered on goddess worship, the moon, animals, and the female reproductive system."[4] Cultural ecofeminist practice intuition and an ethic of care in human-nature interrelationships.[4]

Vegetarian ecofeminism

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Vegetarian ecofeminists assert that "omitting the oppression of animals from feminist and ecofeminist analyses … is inconsistent with the activist and philosophical foundations of both feminism (as a "movement to end all forms of oppression") and ecofeminism."[18] Here, "the personal is political", as many ecofeminists believe that "meat-eating is a form of patriarchal violence."[18] During a 1995 interview with On the Issues, Carol Adams stated, "Manhood is constructed in our culture in part by access to meat-eating and control of other bodies, whether it's women or animals".[35] According to Adams, "We cannot work for justice and challenge the oppression of nature without understanding that the most frequent way we interact with nature is by eating animals".[35] Vegetarian ecofeminism is a clearly committed system of ethics and action.[18]

Vandana Shiva

Common misconceptions

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Essentialism debate

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In the 1980s and 1990s ecofeminism was heavily critiqued as 'essentialism'. The critics wrongly believed ecofeminism to be reinforcing patriarchal norms of domination. Misconstruing the ideological challenge involved, poststructural and third wave feminists argued that ecofeminism literally equated women with nature and so grouped all women into one category enforcing the very societal norms that feminism is trying to break.

This critical charge of 'essentialism' actually reversed the political radicalism of ecofeminism by claiming that ecofeminism demonstrates an adherence to the strict dichotomy, among others, between men and women. And that just as feminine qualities have often been seen as less worthy, nature is also seen as having lesser value than culture.[36]. In the following case, the criticism confuses different categories of feminism. Ecofeminism is opposed to radical and liberation-based feminist varieties. The reason for this is that mainstream feminist politics is tightly bound with hegemonic social status and strives to promote equality within the existing social and political structure [37].

In fact ecofeminists oppose uncritical engagement in mainstream institutions, as these are the environmentally destructive agencies that the movement intends to dismantle.[36]

In an interview, ecofeminist Noel Sturgeon has said that what anti-essentialists fail to recognise is a strategy used to mobilize large and diverse groups of both theorists and activists.[38] Additionally, according to Charlene Spretnak, modern ecofeminism is concerned about a wide variety of issues, including reproductive technology, equal pay and equal rights, toxic pollution, Third World development, and more.[20]

Norie Ross Singer and A. E. Kings emphasize that ecofeminism must be read from an intersectionality perspective, advancing an anti-essentialist critical ecofeminism of difference accounting for how multiple axes of identity such as gender, race, and class variously intermesh in human-nonhuman relationships.[39] Kings argues[40] that the analysis is fundamentally intersectional given that it is built upon the idea that patriarchal violence against women is connected to domination of nature.[41]

Feminist thought surrounding ecofeminism grew in some areas as it was criticized; vegetarian ecofeminism contributed to intersectional analysis; and ecofeminisms that analyzed animal rights, labor rights and activisms focused on oppressed groups. However to some critics, the very inclusion of non-human animals came to be viewed as essentialist.[citation needed]

While theologian Rosemary Radford Ruether rejected mysticism, in work that focused on helping women, she argued that spirituality and activism can be combined effectively in ecofeminism.[42]. On the other hand, social ecologistJanet Biehl criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women.[43] She also stated that rather than being a forward-moving theory, ecofeminism is an anti-progressive movement for women.[43] Conversely socialist ecofeminists situate gender roles in a poltical-economic framework, arguing for a materialist analysis that is deeply radical. The socialist feminist may oppose the ecofeminist by arguing that women do not have an intrinsic connection with nature; rather, that is a socially constructed narrative.[44] Most ecofeminists recognize both culturally constructed and embodied sex/gender differences.

In the 21st century, ecofeminists became aware of these criticisms, and in response some among them began renaming their topic, i.e. queer ecologies, global feminist environmental justice, and gender and the environment.[19] The essentialism concern as Salleh has pointed out was mostly found among North American academics influenced by post structuralist theory. In Europe and the global South, class, race, gender and species domination was framed by more grounded materialist understandings.[citation needed]

Miscellaneous criticisms

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Environmental justice and feminist care ethics have pushed for participation of all marginalized groups, including racism, ageism, ableism. Andrew Charles points out that people with disabilities still face issues of access and representation in policy making.[45] He suggests that the nurturing aspect of ecofeminism might be patronizing to marginalized groups. Likewise, a radical white savior complex could disrupt the self-advocacy of racially marginalized peoples. Such criticisms rest on a failure to recognise the principle of political intersectionality in ecofeminist analyses of global domination and its cross-cultural origins.[46]

Catia Faria argues against the ecofeminist view that the main harm to non-human animals in the wild comes from patriarchal culture. It follows, she argues, that it is mistaken to argue that the conservation of nature is the best solution here. Instead, she contends, natural processes themselves are a source of immense suffering for wild animals and that we should work towards alleviating the harms they experience, as well as eliminating patriarchal sources of harm, such as hunting.[47] However, a position like this can be used cynically by the genetic engineering industry to justify the remaking of evolutionary relations for profit. Over the years, various political and commercial interests have offered negative responses to ecofeminism.

Theorists

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  • Judi Bari – Bari was a principal organizer of the Earth First! movement and experienced sexist hostility.
  • Françoise d'Eaubonne – Called upon women to lead an ecological revolution in order to save the planet. This entailed revolutionizing gender relations and human relations with the natural world.[2]
  • Greta Gaard – Greta Gaard is an American ecofeminist scholar and activist. Her major contributions to the field connect ideas of queer theory, vegetarianism, and animal liberation. Her major theories include ecocriticism which works to include literary criticism and composition to inform ecofeminism and other feminist theories to address a wider range of social issues within ecofeminism. She is an ecological activist and leader in the U.S. Green Party, and the Green Movement.[48]
  • Susan Griffin - A radical feminist philosopher, essayist and playwright particularly known for her innovative, hybrid-form ecofeminist works. A Californian, she taught as an adjunct professor at UC Berkeley as well as at Stanford University and California Institute of Integral Studies.
  • Sallie McFague – A prominent ecofeminist theologian, McFague uses the metaphor of God's body to represent the universe at large. This metaphor values inclusive, mutualistic and interdependent relations amongst all things.[49]
  • Carolyn Merchant – Historian of science who taught at University of California, Berkeley for many years. Her book The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution is a classic ecofeminist text.
  • Mary Mellor – UK sociologist who moved to ecofeminist ideas from an interest in cooperatives. Her books Breaking the Boundaries and Feminism and Ecology are grounded in a materialist analysis.[citation needed]
  • Maria Mies – Mies is a German social critic who has been involved in feminist work throughout Europe and India. She works particularly on the intersections of patriarchy, poverty, and the environment on a local and global scale.[42]
  • Adrian Parr – A cultural and environmental theorist. She has published eight books and numerous articles on environmental activism, feminist new materialism, and imagination. Most notable is her trilogy – Hijacking Sustainability, The Wrath of Capital, and Birth of a New Earth.
  • Val Plumwood – Val Plumwood, formerly Val Routley, was an Australian ecofeminist intellectual and activist, who was prominent in the development of radical ecosophy from the early 1970s through the remainder of the 20th century. In her work Feminism and the Mastery of Nature she describes the relationship of mankind and the environment relating to an eco-feminist ideology.[50]
  • Alicia Puleo – The author of several books and articles on ecofeminism and gender inequality, Alicia Puleo has been characterized as "arguably Spain's most prominent explicator-philosopher of the worldwide movement or theoretical orientation known as ecofeminism."[51]
  • Rosemary Radford Ruether – Has written 36 books and over 600 articles exploring the intersections of feminism, theology, and creation care.[52] Ruether was the first person to connect the domination of the earth with the oppression of women.[53][page needed]
  • Ariel Salleh – Australian ecofeminist with a global perspective; a founding editor of the journal Capitalism Nature Socialism; author of four books and some 300 articles examining ecofeminist links with deep and social ecology, green politics and eco-socialism, digitalisation and decoloniality.
  • Vandana Shiva – Shiva is a scientist by training, prolific author and Indian ecofeminist activist.[54] She was a participant in the Chipko movement of the 1970s, which used non-violent activism to protest and prevent deforestation in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, India, then in Uttar Pradesh. Her fight against genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (together with the fights led by Rachel Carson against DDT and Erin Brockovich against hexavalent chromium) has been described as an example of ecofeminist position.[55]
  • Charlene Spretnak – Spretnak is an American writer largely known for her writing on ecology, politics and spirituality. Through these writings Spretnak has become a prominent ecofeminist. She has written many books which discuss ecological issues in terms of effects with social criticisms, including feminism. Spretnak's works had a major influence in the development of the Green Party. She has also won awards based on her visions on ecology and social issues as well as feminist thinking.[56]
  • Starhawk – An American writer and activist, Starhawk is known for her work in spiritualism and ecofeminism. She advocates for social justice in issues surrounding nature and spirit. These social justice issues fall under the scope of feminism and ecofeminism. She believes in fighting oppression through intersectionality and the importance of spirituality, eco consciousness and sexual and gender liberation.[57][circular reference]
  • Vanessa Lemgruber – Lemgruber is a Brazilian lawyer, writer,[58] activist, and ecofeminist.[59] She defends[60] the Doce river in Brazil and advocates for water quality and zero waste movements.[61]
  • Douglas Vakoch – An American ecocritic whose edited volumes include Ecofeminism and Rhetoric: Critical Perspectives on Sex, Technology, and Discourse (2011),[62] Feminist Ecocriticism: Environment, Women, and Literature (2012),[63] Dystopias and Utopias on Earth and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of Science Fiction (2021),[64] Ecofeminist Science Fiction: International Perspectives on Gender, Ecology, and Literature (2021),[65] The Routledge Handbook of Ecofeminism and Literature (2023),[66] (with Nicole Anae) Indian Feminist Ecocriticism (2022),[67] and (with Sam Mickey) Ecofeminism in Dialogue (2018),[68] Literature and Ecofeminism: Intersectional and International Voices (2018),[69] and Women and Nature?: Beyond Dualism in Gender, Body, and Environment (2018).[70]
  • Karen J. Warren – Warren received her B.A. in philosophy from the University of Minnesota (1970) and her Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts-Amherst in 1978. Before her long tenure at Macalester College, which began in 1985, Warren was Professor of Philosophy at St. Olaf College in the early 1980s. Warren was the Ecofeminist-Scholar-in-Residence at Murdoch University in Australia.[1] In 2003, she served as an Oxford University Round Table Scholar and as Women's Chair in Humanistic Studies at Marquette University in 2004. She has spoken widely on environmental issues, feminism, critical thinking skills and peace studies in many international locations including Buenos Aires, Gothenburg, Helsinki, Oslo, Manitoba, Melbourne, Moscow, Perth, the U.N. Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (1992), and San Jose.
  • Laura Wright — Wright proposed Vegan studies as an academic discipline.[citation needed]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b MacGregor, Sherilyn (2006). Beyond mothering earth: ecological citizenship and the politics of care. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-7748-1201-6.
  2. ^ a b Merchant, Carolyn (1992). "Chapter 8". Radical ecology: the search for a livable world. New York: Routledge. p. 184.
  3. ^ Glazebrook, Trish (September 2002). "Karen Warren's Ecofeminism". Ethics & the Environment. 7 (2): 12–26. doi:10.2979/ETE.2002.7.2.12. S2CID 144641656.
  4. ^ a b c d e Merchant, Carolyn (2005). "Ecofeminism". Radical Ecology. Routledge. pp. 193–221.
  5. ^ Adams, Carol (2007). Ecofeminism and the Sacred. Continuum. pp. 1–8.
  6. ^ Mann, Susan A (2011). "Pioneers of U.S. Ecofeminism and Environmental Justice". Feminist Formations. 23 (2): 1–25. doi:10.1353/ff.2011.0028. S2CID 146349456.
  7. ^ Glazebrook, Trish (Autumn 2002). "Karen Warren's Ecofeminism". Ethics & the Environment. 7 (2): 12–27. doi:10.2979/ete.2002.7.2.12. S2CID 144641656.
  8. ^ Norlock, Kathryn J. (December 2011). "Building Receptivity: Leopold's Land Ethic and Critical Feminist Interpretation". Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture (Submitted manuscript). 5 (4): 491–509. doi:10.1558/jsrnc.v5i4.491.
  9. ^ Seager, Joni (Spring 2003). "Rachel Carson Died of Breast Cancer: The Coming of Age of Feminist Environmentalism". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 28 (3): 945–973. doi:10.1086/345456. S2CID 146687251.
  10. ^ a b c Warren, Karen J. (2000). Ecofeminist Philosophy: A Western Perspective on What It Is and Why It Matters. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 9780847692996.
  11. ^ Poon, Felix (10 January 2022). "The Life and Legacy of Sunderlal Bahuguna and the Chipko Movement in India". New Hampshire Public Radio. Retrieved April 9, 2023.
  12. ^ "Our History". The Green Belt Movement. Retrieved October 8, 2016.
  13. ^ "Love Canal". Center for Health, Environment, & Justice. Retrieved October 8, 2016.
  14. ^ a b Lamar, Stephanie (1991). "Ecofeminist Theory and Grassroots Politics". Hypatia. 6 (1): 28–45. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1991.tb00207.x. S2CID 145518119.
  15. ^ Doverspike, Nicole (2012). "Mother's Milk Project". English 487W Blog: West of Everything. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
  16. ^ Bernstein, Emily (1993). "Neighborhood Report: Harlem; Sowing a Future With Green in It". The New York Times. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
  17. ^ Hawthorne, Susan (2002). Wild Politics: Feminism, Globalisation, Bio/diversity. Melbourne, Australia: Spinifex Press.
  18. ^ a b c d Gaard, Greta Claire (2002). "Vegetarian ecofeminism: A review essay". Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies. 23 (2): 117–146. doi:10.1353/fro.2003.0006. S2CID 143879458.
  19. ^ a b Gaard, Greta (2011). "Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism". Feminist Formations. 23 (2): 26–53. doi:10.1353/ff.2011.0017. S2CID 145195744.
  20. ^ a b Spretnak, Charlene (1990). "Ecofeminism: Our Roots and Flowering". In Diamond, Irene; Ornstein, Gloria (eds.). Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Feminism. Sierra Club Books. pp. 3–14.
  21. ^ Gaard, Greta and, Gruen, Lori (1993). "Ecofeminism: Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health". Society and Nature. 2: 1–35.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Tuana, Nancy; Tong, Rosemarie, eds. (2018). "Anarcha Feminist and Ecological Feminist Perspectives". Feminism And Philosophy: Essential Readings In Theory, Reinterpretation, And Application. Routledge. pp. 327–9. ISBN 978-0-8133-2212-4 – via Google Books.
  23. ^ Merchant, Carolyn (2005). Radical Ecology. Routledge. pp. 169–173.
  24. ^ Hobgood-Oster, Laura. "Ecofeminism: Historic and International Evolution" (PDF). Retrieved March 17, 2012.
  25. ^ Oksala, Johanna (Spring 2018). "Feminism, Capitalism, and Ecology". Hypatia. 33 (2): 216–234. doi:10.1111/hypa.12395. S2CID 149338235.
  26. ^ Warren, Karen J. (2015). "Feminist Environmental Philosophy". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
  27. ^ Stoddart, Mark; Tindall, D. B. (2011). "Ecofeminism, Hegemonic Masculinity, And Environmental Movement Participation In British Columbia, Canada, 1998-2007: "Women Always Clean Up The Mess"". Sociological Spectrum. 31 (3): 342–368. doi:10.1080/02732173.2011.557065. S2CID 146343509.
  28. ^ Shiva, Vandana (1988). Staying alive: women, ecology and development. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-823-8.
  29. ^ Shiva, Vandana. "Development as a New Project of Western Patriarchy." Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Feminism, edited by Irene Diamond and Gloria Ornstein, Sierra Club Books, 1990, pp. 189-200.
  30. ^ (Mies, Maria, and Vandana Shiva. Ecofeminism. Halifax, N.S. : Fernwood Publications; 1993. 24.)
  31. ^ "Ecofeminism: Is the Movement Still Relevant?". Gender Across Borders. Archived from the original on 2019-09-29. Retrieved 2014-05-13.
  32. ^ Starhawk. "Power, Authority, and Mystery: Ecofeminism and Earth-based Spirituality." Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, edited by Irene Diamond and Gloria Orenstein, Sierra Club Books, 1990, pp. 73-86.
  33. ^ a b Eisler, Riane. "The Gaia Tradition & The Partnership Future: An Ecofeminist Manifesto." Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, edited by Irene Diamond and Gloria Orenstein, Sierra Club Books, 1990, pp. 23-34.
  34. ^ Merchant, Carolyn (2005). "Spiritual Ecology". Radical Ecology. Routledge. pp. 124–125.
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  39. ^ Norie Ross Singer, "Toward Ecofeminist Communication Studies," Communication Theory, 2020, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 268-89. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtz023
  40. ^ A. E. Kings, "Intersectionality and the Changing Face of Ecofeminism," Ethics and the EnviroSimultaneously, Kings warns against the presumption of intersectional thought as a natural component of ecofeminism, so as not to disregard the distinctive academic contributions of intersectional feminists.nment, 2017, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 63-87. https://doi.org/10.2979/ethicsenviro.22.1.04
  41. ^ Kings, A. E. (Spring 2017). "Intersectionality and the Changing Face of Ecofeminism". Ethics and the Environment. 22: 63–87. doi:10.2979/ethicsenviro.22.1.04. S2CID 148809508.
  42. ^ a b Ruether, Rosemary Radford (2003). Eaton, Heather; Lorentzen, Lois Ann (eds.). Ecofeminism and Globalization. Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. vii–xi. ISBN 978-0-7425-2697-6.
  43. ^ a b Biehl, Janet (1991). Rethinking eco-feminist politics. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-392-9.
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  56. ^ Charlene Spretnak, "The Early Years of the Green Movement in the United States", in Zelko and Brinkmann, eds., Green Parties, p. 48.
  57. ^ see Starhawk
  58. ^ Guia ecofeminista: Mulheres, direito, ecologia (in Spanish).
  59. ^ "Ecofeminist Talks – Medium".[self-published source]
  60. ^ "Meet Google Drive – One place for all your files".[permanent dead link]
  61. ^ "Instagram".[self-published source]
  62. ^ Vakoch, Douglas A. (2011-01-01). Ecofeminism and rhetoric: critical perspectives on sex, technology, and discourse. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 9780857451873. OCLC 714734848.
  63. ^ Vakoch, Douglas A. (2012-01-01). Feminist ecocriticism: environment, women, and literature. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739176825. OCLC 815941726.
  64. ^ Vakoch, Douglas A., ed. (2021). Dystopias and Utopias on Earth and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of Science Fiction. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780367716233.
  65. ^ Vakoch, Douglas A., ed. (2021). Ecofeminist Science Fiction: International Perspectives on Gender, Ecology, and Literature. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780367716417.
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  68. ^ Vakoch, Douglas A.; Mickey, Sam (2018). Ecofeminism in Dialogue. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. ISBN 9781498569279. OCLC 1005695115.
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Further reading

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Key works

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Anthologies

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  • Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations, edited by Carol J. Adams and Josephine Donovan
  • Dystopias and Utopias on Earth and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of Science Fiction, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch
  • Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature, edited by Greta Gaard
  • Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature, edited by Karen J. Warren with editorial assistance from Nisvan Erkal
  • EcoFeminism & Globalization: exploring culture, context and religion, edited by Heather Eaton & Lois Ann Lorentzen
  • Ecofeminism and Rhetoric: Critical Perspectives on Sex, Technology, and Discourse, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch
  • Ecofeminism and the Sacred, edited by Carol J. Adams
  • Ecofeminism in Dialogue, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch and Sam Mickey
  • Ecofeminist Science Fiction: International Perspectives on Gender, Ecology, and Literature, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch
  • Eco-Sufficiency & Global Justice: Women write Political Ecology, edited by Ariel Salleh
  • Feminist Ecocriticism: Environment, Women, and Literature, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch
  • Indian Feminist Ecocriticism, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch and Nicole Anae
  • Literature and Ecofeminism: Intersectional and International Voices, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch and Sam Mickey
  • The Politics of Women's Spirituality: Essays on the Rise of Spiritual Power within the Feminist Movement, edited by Charlene Spretnak
  • Readings in Ecology and Feminist Theology, edited by Mary Heather MacKinnon and Moni McIntyre
  • Reclaim the Earth, edited by Leonie Caldecott & Stephanie Leland
  • Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, edited by Irene Diamond and Gloria Feman Orenstein
  • The Routledge Handbook of Ecofeminism and Literature, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch
  • Women and Nature?: Beyond Dualism in Gender, Body, and Environment, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch and Sam Mickey
  • Women Healing Earth: Third World Women on Ecology, Feminism, and Religion, edited by Rosemary Radford Ruether
  • GUIA ECOFEMINISTA - mulheres, direito, ecologia, written by Vanessa Lemgruber edited by Ape'Ku

Journal articles

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  • Buckingham, Susan (2015). "Ecofeminism". International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition): 845–850. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.91020-1.
  • Gaard, Greta Claire (2011). "Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism". Feminist Formations. 23 (2): 26–53. doi:10.1353/ff.2011.0017. S2CID 145195744.
  • Huggan, Graham (2004). ""Greening" Postcolonialism: Ecocritical Perspectives". MFS Modern Fiction Studies. 50 (3): 701–733. doi:10.1353/mfs.2004.0067. S2CID 143900488.
  • Mack-Canty, Colleen (2004). "Third-Wave Feminism and the Need to Reweave the Nature/ Culture Duality". NWSA Journal. 16 (3): 154–179. doi:10.1353/nwsa.2004.0077.
  • MacGregor, Sherilyn (2004). "From care to citizenship: Calling ecofeminism back to politics". Ethics & the Environment. 9 (1): 56–84. doi:10.1353/een.2004.0007. S2CID 144880391.
  • Mallory, Chaone (2013). "Locating Ecofeminism in Encounters with Food and Place". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 26 (1): 171–189. doi:10.1007/s10806-011-9373-8. S2CID 144880945.
  • Mann, Susan A. 2011. Pioneers of U.S. Ecofeminism and Environmental Justice, "Feminist Formations" 23(2): 1-25.
  • Wildy, Jade (2012). "The Artistic Progressions of Ecofeminism: The Changing Focus of Women in Environmental Art". International Journal of the Arts in Society. 6 (1): 53–65. doi:10.18848/1833-1866/cgp/v06i01/35978.
  • Salleh, Ariel (1984) 'From Feminism to Ecology', Social Alternatives, Vol. 4, No. 3, 8–12.
  • Salleh, Ariel (2019) 'Ecofeminist Sociology as a New Class Analysis' in Klaus Dorre and Brigitte Aulenbacher (eds.), Global Dialogue, International Sociological Association Newsletter: Vol. 9, No. 1.
  • Salleh, Ariel (1991) 'Essentialism and Ecofeminism', Arena No. 94:167-173.
  • David Pellow (2018), 'Review of EcoFeminism as Politics: Nature, Marx and the Postmodern', Journal of World-Systems Research, doi:10.5195/JWSR.2018.864.

Fiction

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Poetry

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